This project proposed a new approach to explore ethical issues arising from the clinical implementation of genomics in antenatal care in the twenty first century. Situated at the interface between sociology, bioethics and law/social policy this research seeks to gain in-depth understanding of the situations in which these questions emerge and are experienced by the key-stakeholders (health professionals, patients, scientists, policy-makers), and provide insight into the underlying value systems which promote them. This comparative investigation takes non-invasive prenatal testing (NIPT) in England, France and Germany as a case study. NIPT is a rapidly developing genomic technology that is constantly widening its scope and opening up new possibilities in reproductive medicine. These data are part of a wider comparative study combining a literature review and an empirical research (semi-structured interviews with different stakeholders, including pregnant women/couples and health professionals) to explore the ethical issues arising from prenatal genetics and genomics in England, France and Germany.This project proposes a new approach to explore ethical issues arising from the clinical implementation of genomics in antenatal care in the twenty first century. Situated at the interface between sociology, bioethics and law/social policy this research seeks to gain in-depth understanding of the situations in which these questions emerge and are experienced by the key-stakeholders (health professionals, patients, scientists, policy-makers), and provide insight into the underlying value systems which promote them. This comparative investigation takes non-invasive prenatal testing (NIPT) in England, France and Germany as a case study. NIPT is a rapidly developing genomic technology that is constantly widening its scope and opening up new possibilities in reproductive medicine. Since 2011, NIPT, which uses cell-free foetal DNA in the maternal blood, has been commercially available worldwide. NIPT can be done early in pregnancy - in the first trimester - and is considered highly reliable for detecting common chromosomal anomalies (e.g. trisomy 21, 18 or 13). NIPT for these anomalies is not used as a diagnostic test at present and so a positive NIPT test requires invasive testing for confirmation. Research is also being done to investigate the usefulness of the test for microdeletions (e.g. cri-du-chat syndrome) and for single gene disorders. Some authors suggest that, in the future, it could be used to sequence the whole-genome of a foetus. The introduction of NIPT into routine antenatal care carries not only benefits but also raises important ethical questions about the meaning of health, illness and disability, the scope of public health interventions, social inclusion and exclusion as well as reproductive choice. These issues require careful analysis within their specific contexts. By 2020 NIPT will be freely available to women at risk of common chromosomal anomalies in England, France and Germany. Although all three healthcare systems agree that NIPT should be used as a screening tool, they differ with regard to: the risk thresholds they use, their public discourses about genomics, screening policies, professional regulations and laws regarding prenatal genetics/genomics. The aim of this project is to conduct an in-depth investigation of the ethical issues arising from NIPT in three different socio-cultural contexts within Europe (England, France and Germany). To achieve this aim, the project has three research and two impact objectives: 1. Provide insight into the values and socio-political particularities that shape the (future) use and regulation of NIPT within different socio-cultural contexts. 2. Describe the views and normative arguments presented in public debates on the ethical and social implications of NIPT, and identify the principal actors who influence these debates in each country-site. 3. Gain in-depth understanding of the experiences and practical-ethical problems the principal actors encounter in practice and investigate how these are resolved. 4. Impact on prenatal screening policy by changing the way we think about the ethical issues arising in practice, nationally and internationally. 5. Develop a comparative empirical bioethics approach as an innovative tool in healthcare research. This empirical bioethics project involves document analysis (of professional and ethics guidelines, policies, laws, bioethics and social sciences literature, media), conceptual analysis (of the normative arguments raised in each country) and comparative empirical research (observations, interviews, focus groups) with patients, healthcare professionals, scientists, policy-makers. The data generated will be analysed together in an iterative process. The aim is to provide a contextual understanding of the practical ethical issues raised by NIPT within their socio-cultural, legal and structural context. This will generate important elements for the development of models of good practice within Europe.

The interviews were semi-structured and we used a thematic guide to collect the experience of pregnant women/couples, health professionals and scientists in relation to the publicly funded offer of standard NIPT in England, France and Germany.