As a natural sediment trap, marine sediments of the sheltered central part of the Maldives Inner Sea represent an exceptional archive for paleoenvironmental and climate changes of the equatorial Indian Ocean. To evaluate the complex interplay between high-latitude and monsoonal climate variability, related dust fluxes, and regional oceanographic responses, we focused on Fe/Al, Ti/Al and Si/Ca ratios as proxies for terrigenous sediment delivery, and total organic carbon (TOC) and Br XRF counts as proxies for marine productivity. Benthic foraminiferal fauna distributions, grain size, and stable d18O and d13C data were used for evaluating changes in the benthic ecosystem, as well as changes in the intermediate water circulation, bottom water current velocity and oxygenation.Our multi-proxy data record reveals an enhanced dust supply during the glacial intervals, causing elevated Fe/Al and Si/Ca ratios, an overall coarsening of the sediment and an increasing amount of agglutinated benthic foraminifera. The enhanced dust fluxes can be attributed to higher dust availability in the Asian desert and loess areas and its transport by intensified winter monsoon winds during glacial conditions. These combined effects of wind-induced mixing of surface waters and dust fertilisation during the cold phases resulted in an increased surface-water productivity and related organic carbon fluxes. Thus, the development of highly diverse benthic foraminiferal faunas with certain detritus and suspension feeders were fostered. The difference in the d13C signal between epifaunal and deep infaunal benthic foraminifera reveals intermediate water oxygen concentrations between approximately 40 and 100 µmol kg-1 during this time. The precessional fluctuation pattern of oxygen changes resembles that from the deep Arabian Sea, suggesting an expansion of the Oxygen Minimum Zone (OMZ) from the Arabian Sea into the tropical Indian Ocean with a probable regional signal of strengthened winter-monsoon-induced organic matter fluxes and oxygen consumption, and further controlled by the varying inflow intensity of the Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW). In addition, the bottom water oxygenation pattern of the Maldives Inner Sea reveals a long phase of reduced ventilation during the last glacial period. This process is likely linked to the combined effects of generally enhanced oxygen consumption rates during high-productivity phases, reduced AAIW production, and the restriction of upper bathyal environments of the Inner Sea during sea-level lowstands. Thus, our multi-proxy record reflects a close linkage between the Indian monsoon oscillation, intermediate water circulation, productivity and sea-level changes on orbital time-scale.

Supplement to: Bunzel, Dorothea; Schmiedl, Gerhard; Lindhorst, Sebastian; Mackensen, Andreas; Reolid, Jesus; Romahn, Sarah; Betzler, Christian (2017): A multi-proxy analysis of Late Quaternary ocean and climate variability for the Maldives, Inner Sea. Climate of the Past, 13(12), 1791-1813