Transnational organised crime at sea has emerged as a significant area of international concern, whether that be piracy and armed robbery against ships, the use of the sea for trafficking of humans, drugs, or arms and as a conduit for extremist violence, or pervasive illegal fishing other environmental crimes in the maritime domain. Responding to these challenges requires complex and interconnected measures at sea and on land, and in ways that combine security, law enforcement and development themes. This project set out to improve our understanding of the causes and manifestations of crime at sea, and to provide recommendations to strengthen international and regional responses to it. It focused on the Indo-Pacific, a maritime region which is particularly prone to maritime insecurities on the one hand, but in which significant efforts have been made to tackle these on the other. The project first established a systematic conceptualisation and categorisation of transnational organised crime at sea (Bueger and Edmunds 2020, 2024). Second, we conducted a systematic evidence review of the existing knowledge base on blue crime and published this as three data papers and an online evidence base. Third, drawing on analysis of responses to maritime crime in our case study regions, we developed a theoretical model of how and when cooperation develops between actors in the face of shared problems of security and law enforcement in the maritime domain. Finally, we identified a series of promising practices and solutions in the fight against transnational organised crime at sea, focusing on informal governance mechanisms, operations at sea, maritime security strategies, maritime domain awareness and information sharing, and capacity building. The collection consists of data files from evidence base and regional guide workstreams.The maritime dimension of transnational organised crime continues to be one of the least studied areas of international security studies and criminology. Maritime security has climbed high on the international agendas, as for instance documented by the UK's first maritime security strategy from 2015, or events such as the annual Our Oceans Conference that has included maritime security in its discussion. Yet, evidence on transnational organised crime at sea that can inform political and security responses on a national, regional or international level remains weak. This concerns in particular how different maritime crimes, such as piracy, illegal fishery, or smuggling relate to and reinforce each other. Such knowledge is not only vital to protect maritime zones and safeguard maritime borders, but also to ensure the freedom of navigation and safety of shipping. In the global South, it is also a vital element in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals through advancing the so-called blue economy. In order to improve our evidence basis in this field and to develop new guidelines for international responses through law enforcement operations, surveillance, or capacity building, this project is the first to develop a comprehensive evidence base on transnational organised crime at sea and the responses to it with a focus on the Indo-Pacific. The project, firstly, cross-fertilizes in a path-breaking way existing research on maritime crime from different disciplinary backgrounds and data sources to develop an evidence base for analysis and policy making. Secondly, it is the first to compare three sub-regional maritime security governance systems with each other. Through studying maritime security governance in the Western Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia and the South Pacific the project offers major new insights into how maritime crimes as paradigmatic transnational security problems lead to new forms of international cooperation. Thirdly, the project will develop essential guidelines and an outline of best and promising practices for how to tackle maritime crime. Drawing on the insights gained from each region, we identify those responses which are particularly promising to be replicated in other regions and describe how to do get these practices in place. This is the first major research project which not only consolidates existing knowledge on maritime crime, but also develops new insights on how they can be addressed and prevented on a regional and transnational level. The ground-breaking results of the project will open new avenues for research on maritime security and global ocean governance, but also new innovative policy ideas for how to prevent crimes and assist countries in the Global South in doing so.

The TOCAS project set out to synthesise and review existing data on the manifestations and interconnections of transnational organised crime at sea, and to identify promising practices and recommendations for maritime security and law enforcement actors to strengthen their response to it. The project was also significantly impacted by the COVID pandemic in 2020-2021. This required us to adjust our initial, largely fieldwork based, research design in the face of extended global travel restrictions to focus on desk-based methodologies. Specifically: 1) Conceptual and theoretical work. This component of the research comprised the development of a conceptualisation and categorisation of transnational organised crime at sea (Bueger and Edmunds 2020), and the development of a theoretical model to explain how and when cooperation develops between actors in the face of shared problems of security and law enforcement at sea (Bueger and Edmunds 2021a). 2) Evidence base. Review of existing literature and reports on different manifestations of transnational organised crime at sea. Results were organised according to typology developed in Bueger and Edmunds 2020. The evidence base was published on the SafeSeas website at www.safeseas.net and is included in this repository. 3) Data review. Review of how data is currently collected across three categories of transnational organised crime at sea (crimes against shipping, criminal flows, and environmental crimes), conducted in collaboration with our Stable Seas partner Organisation. Each report addressed: a) An overview of the crime category; b) a catalogue of organisations collecting data on crimes in each categories, together with publicly accessible datasets where available, an assessment of the quality of the information available by crime type, and a broader analysis of the quality and availability of data. All three papers are available at www.safeseas.net and included in this repository. 4) Identification of promising practices. Desk based mapping of regional security arrangements in three sub-regions of the Indo-Pacific, comprising the Western Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia, and the South Pacific, including membership, issues covered, ongoing projects and activities, challenges, and cooperation with other arrangements. Analysis of documents, public speeches, and media reports. Co-production workshops, online and in-person, organised with maritime security and law enforcement professionals, as detailed in the TOCAS ResearchFish submission. Participant observation by members of the project team in regional maritime security meetings and professional fora (both online and face to face), as detailed in the TOCAS Research Fish submission. Results synthesised in various publications including Bueger, Edmunds, and McCabe 2020; Bueger and Edmunds 2021b, 2023, 2024; Edwards 2022).